This is Info file latex, produced by Makeinfo-1.64 from the input file latex2e.texi. This file documents LaTeX2e, a document preparation system. LaTeX2e is a macro package for TeX. This is edition 1.6 of the LaTeX2e documentation, and is for the Texinfo that is distributed as part of Version 19 of GNU Emacs. It uses version 2.134 or later of the texinfo.tex input file. This is translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The LaTeX 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore . The LaTeX2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen . Copyright 1988,1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Copyright 1994-1996 Torsten Martinsen. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the sections entitled "Distribution" and "General Public License" may be included in a translation approved by the author instead of in the original English.  File: latex, Node: Top, Next: Overview, Prev: (dir), Up: (dir) LaTeX2e is a document preparation system implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program. LaTeX was originally conceived by Leslie Lamport. This is edition 1.6 of the LaTeX2e documentation. * Menu: * Overview:: What is LaTeX? * Commands:: Commands within a LaTeX document. * Parameters:: The command line. * Command Index:: An alphabetical list of LaTeX commands. * Concept Index:: An alphabetical list of concepts.  File: latex, Node: Overview, Next: Commands, Prev: Top, Up: Top Overview of LaTeX and Local Guide ********************************* The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program and the LaTeX Macro package for TeX. To be more specific, it processes an input file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that describe how the text should be formatted. It produces at least three files as output: 1. A "Device Independent", or `.dvi' file. This contains commands that can be translated into commands for a variety of output devices. You can view the output of LaTeX by using a program such as `xdvi', which actually uses the `.dvi' file. 2. A "transcript" or `.log' file that contains summary information and diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. 3. An "auxiliary" or `.aux' file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for things such as sectioning. For a description of what goes on inside TeX, you should consult `The TeXbook' by Donald E. Knuth, ISBN 0-201-13448-9, published jointly by the American Mathematical Society and Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. For a description of LaTeX, you should consult: `LaTeX: A Document Preparation System', by Leslie Lamport, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 2nd edition, 1994. `The LaTeX Companion', by Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, and Alexander Samarin, Addison-Wesley, 1994.  File: latex, Node: Commands, Next: Parameters, Prev: Overview, Up: Top Commands ******** A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a `\' followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, `[]', are optional while arguments contained in braces, `{}', are required. NOTE: LaTeX is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless explicitly directed to do otherwise. * Menu: * Counters:: Internal counters used by LaTeX. * Cross References:: Automatic referencing. * Definitions:: Define your own commands etc. * Document Classes:: Some of the various classes available. * Environments:: Such as enumerate & itemize. * Footnotes:: How to produce footnotes. * Layout:: Controlling the page layout. * Lengths:: The length commands. * Letters:: The letter class. * Line & Page Breaking:: How to insert pagebreaks etc. * Making Paragraphs:: Paragraph commands. * Margin Notes:: Putting remarks in the margin. * Math Formulae:: How to create mathematical formulae. * Modes:: Paragraph, Math or LR modes. * Page Styles:: Various styles of page layout. * Sectioning:: How to section properly. * Spaces & Boxes:: All the associated commands. * Special Characters:: Special reserved characters. * Splitting the Input:: Dealing with big files by splitting. * Starting & Ending:: The formal start & end layouts. * Table of Contents:: How to create a table of contents. * Terminal Input/Output:: User interaction. * Typefaces:: Such as bold, italics etc.  File: latex, Node: Counters, Next: Cross References, Prev: Commands, Up: Commands Counters ======== Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or command that produces the number, except with no `\'. (enumi - enumiv are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering. part paragraph figure enumi chapter subparagraph table enumii section page footnote enumiii subsection equation mpfootnote enumiv subsubsection * Menu: * \addtocounter:: Add a quantity to a counter. * \alph:: Print value of a counter using letters. * \arabic:: Print value of a counter using numerals. * \fnsymbol:: Print value of a counter using symbols. * \newcounter:: Define a new counter. * \refstepcounter:: Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. * \roman:: Print value of a counter using roman numerals. * \setcounter:: Set the value of a counter. * \stepcounter:: Add to counter, resetting subsidiary counters. * \usecounter:: Use a specified counter in a list environment. * \value:: Use the value of a counter in an expression.  File: latex, Node: \addtocounter, Next: \alph, Prev: Counters, Up: Counters \addtocounter ------------- `\addtocounter{counter}{value}' The `\addtocounter' command increments the `counter' by the amount specified by the `value' argument. The `value' argument can be negative.  File: latex, Node: \alph, Next: \arabic, Prev: \addtocounter, Up: Counters \alph ----- `\alph{counter}' This command causes the value of the `counter' to be printed in alphabetic characters. The `\alph' command uses lower case alphabetic alphabetic characters, i.e., `a, b, c...' while the `\Alph' command uses upper case alphabetic characters, i.e., `A, B, C...'.  File: latex, Node: \arabic, Next: \fnsymbol, Prev: \alph, Up: Counters \arabic ------- `\arabic{counter}' The `\arabic' command causes the value of the `counter' to be printed in Arabic numbers, i.e., `3'.  File: latex, Node: \fnsymbol, Next: \newcounter, Prev: \arabic, Up: Counters \fnsymbol --------- `\fnsymbol{counter}' The `\fnsymbol' command causes the value of the `counter' to be printed in a specific sequence of nine symbols that can be used for numbering footnotes. NB. `counter' must have a value between 1 and 9 inclusive.  File: latex, Node: \newcounter, Next: \refstepcounter, Prev: \fnsymbol, Up: Counters \newcounter ----------- `\newcounter{foo}[counter]' The `\newcounter' command defines a new counter named `foo'. The counter is initialized to zero. The optional argument `[counter]' causes the counter `foo' to be reset whenever the counter named in the optional argument is incremented.  File: latex, Node: \refstepcounter, Next: \roman, Prev: \newcounter, Up: Counters \refstepcounter --------------- `\refstepcounter{counter}' The `\refstepcounter' command works like `\stepcounter' *Note \stepcounter::, except it also defines the current `\ref' value to be the result of `\thecounter'.  File: latex, Node: \roman, Next: \stepcounter, Prev: \refstepcounter, Up: Counters \roman ------ `\roman{counter}' This command causes the value of the `counter' to be printed in Roman numerals. The `\roman' command uses lower case Roman numerals, i.e., `i, ii, iii...', while the `\Roman' command uses upper case Roman numerals, i.e., `I, II, III...'.  File: latex, Node: \stepcounter, Next: \setcounter, Prev: \roman, Up: Counters \stepcounter ------------ `\stepcounter{counter}' The `\stepcounter' command adds one to the `counter' and resets all subsidiary counters.  File: latex, Node: \setcounter, Next: \usecounter, Prev: \stepcounter, Up: Counters \setcounter ----------- `\setcounter{counter}{value}' The `\setcounter' command sets the value of the `counter' to that specified by the `value' argument.  File: latex, Node: \usecounter, Next: \value, Prev: \setcounter, Up: Counters \usecounter ----------- `\usecounter{counter}' The `\usecounter' command is used in the second argument of the `list' environment to allow the counter specified to be used to number the list items.  File: latex, Node: \value, Prev: \usecounter, Up: Counters \value ------ `\value{counter}' The `\value' command produces the value of the `counter' named in the mandatory argument. It can be used where LaTeX expects an integer or number, such as the second argument of a `\setcounter' or `\addtocounter' command, or in: \hspace{\value{foo}\parindent} It is useful for doing arithmetic with counters.  File: latex, Node: Cross References, Next: Definitions, Prev: Counters, Up: Commands Cross References ================ One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details." * Menu: * \label:: Assign a symbolic name to a piece of text. * \pageref:: Refer to a page number. * \ref:: Refer to a section, figure or similar.  File: latex, Node: \label, Next: \pageref, Prev: Cross References, Up: Cross References \label ------ `\label{key}' A `\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to the `key' the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns that number to the `key'. A `key' can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are different. To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon. The prefixes conventionally used are * `cha' for chapters * `sec' for lower-level sectioning commands * `fig' for figures * `tab' for tables * `eq' for equations Thus, a label for a figure would look like `fig:bandersnatch'.  File: latex, Node: \pageref, Next: \ref, Prev: \label, Up: Cross References \pageref -------- `\pageref{key}' The `\pageref' command produces the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding `\label' command appears. ie. where `\label{key}' appears.  File: latex, Node: \ref, Prev: \pageref, Up: Cross References \ref ---- `\ref{key}' The `\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation number, ... of the corresponding `\label' command.  File: latex, Node: Definitions, Next: Document Classes, Prev: Cross References, Up: Commands Definitions =========== * Menu: * \newcommand:: Define a new command. * \newenvironment:: Define a new environment. * \newtheorem:: Define a new theorem-like environment. * \newfont:: Define a new font name.  File: latex, Node: \newcommand, Next: \newenvironment, Prev: Definitions, Up: Definitions \newcommand ----------- \newcommand{cmd}[args]{definition} \newcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition} \renewcommand{cmd}[args]{definition} \renewcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition} These commands define (or redefine) a command. `cmd' A command name beginning with a `\'. For `\newcommand' it must not be already defined and must not begin with `\end'; for `\renewcommand' it must already be defined. `args' An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the command being defined. The default is for the command to have no arguments. `def' If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's first argument is optional. The default value of the optional argument is `def'. `definition' The text to be substituted for every occurrence of `cmd'; a parameter of the form `#n' in `cmd' is replaced by the text of the nth argument when this substitution takes place.  File: latex, Node: \newenvironment, Next: \newtheorem, Prev: \newcommand, Up: Definitions \newenvironment --------------- \newenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef} \newenvironment{nam}[args][default]{begdef}{enddef} \renewenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef} These commands define or redefine an environment. `nam' The name of the environment. For `\newenvironment' there must be no currently defined environment by that name, and the command `\nam' must be undefined. For `\renewenvironment' the environment must already be defined. `args' An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments. `default' If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and `default' gives the default value for that argument. `begdef' The text substituted for every occurrence of `\begin{nam}'; a parameter of the form `#n' in `cmd' is replaced by the text of the nth argument when this substitution takes place. `enddef' The text substituted for every occurrence of `\end{nam}'. It may not contain any argument parameters.  File: latex, Node: \newtheorem, Next: \newfont, Prev: \newenvironment, Up: Definitions \newtheorem ----------- \newtheorem{env_name}{caption}[within] \newtheorem{env_name}[numbered_like]{caption} This command defines a theorem-like environment. `env_name' The name of the environment to be defined. A string of letters. It must not be the name of an existing environment or counter. `caption' The text printed at the beginning of the environment, right before the number. This may simply say "Theorem", for example. `within' The name of an already defined counter, usually of a sectional unit. Provides a means of resetting the new theorem counter *within* the sectional unit. `numbered_like' The name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The `\newtheorem' command may have at most one optional argument.  File: latex, Node: \newfont, Prev: \newtheorem, Up: Definitions \newfont -------- `\newfont{cmd}{font_name}' Defines the command name `cmd', which must not be currently defined, to be a declaration that selects the font named `font_name' to be the current font.  File: latex, Node: Document Classes, Next: Environments, Prev: Definitions, Up: Commands Document Classes ================ Valid LaTeX document classes include: * article * report * letter * book * slides Other document classes are often available. *Note Overview::, for details. They are selected with the following command: `\documentclass [options] {class}' All the standard classes (except slides) accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (10 pt is default): 10pt, 11pt, 12pt All classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default is letter): a4paper, a5paper, b5paper, letterpaper, legalpaper, executivepaper Miscellaneous options: * landscape -- selects landscape format. Default is portrait. * titlepage, notitlepage -- selects if there should be a separate title page. * leqno -- equation number on left side of equations. Default is right side. * fleqn -- displayed formulas flush left. Default is centred. * openbib -- use "open" bibliography format. * draft, final -- mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a rule. Default is final. These options are not available with the slides class: * oneside, twoside -- selects one- or twosided layout. Default is oneside, except for the book class. * openright, openany -- determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page. Default is openright for book. * onecolumn, twocolumn -- one or two columns. Defaults to one column. The slides class offers the option `clock' for printing the time at the bottom of each note. If you specify more than one option, they must be separated by a comma. Additional packages are loaded by a `\usepackage[options]{pkg}' command. If you specify more than one package, they must be separated by a comma. Any options given in the `\documentclass' command that are unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with `\usepackage'.  File: latex, Node: Layout, Next: Lengths, Prev: Footnotes, Up: Commands Layout ====== Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. * Menu: * \flushbottom:: Make all text pages the same height. * \onecolumn:: Use one-column layout. * \raggedbottom:: Allow text pages of differing height. * \twocolumn:: Use two-column layout.  File: latex, Node: \flushbottom, Next: \onecolumn, Up: Layout \flushbottom ------------ The `\flushbottom' declaration makes all text pages the same height, adding extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page. This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.  File: latex, Node: \onecolumn, Next: \raggedbottom, Prev: \flushbottom, Up: Layout \onecolumn ---------- The `\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output.  File: latex, Node: \raggedbottom, Next: \twocolumn, Prev: \onecolumn, Up: Layout \raggedbottom ------------- The `\raggedbottom' declaration makes all pages the height of the text on that page. No extra vertical space is added.  File: latex, Node: \twocolumn, Prev: \raggedbottom, Up: Layout \twocolumn ---------- `\twocolumn[text]' The `\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If the optional `text' argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode.  File: latex, Node: Environments, Next: Footnotes, Prev: Document Classes, Up: Commands Environments ============ LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner. \begin{environment-name} . . . \end{environment-name} * Menu: * array:: Math arrays. * center:: Centred lines. * description:: Labelled lists. * enumerate:: Numbered lists. * eqnarray:: Sequences of aligned equations. * equation:: Displayed equation. * figure:: Floating figures. * flushleft:: Flushed left lines. * flushright:: Flushed right lines. * itemize:: Bulleted lists. * letter:: Letters. * list:: Generic list environment. * minipage:: Miniature page. * picture:: Picture with text, arrows, lines and circles. * quotation:: Indented environment with paragraph indentation. * quote:: Indented environment with no paragraph indentation. * tabbing:: Align text arbitrarily. * table:: Floating tables. * tabular:: Align text in columns. * thebibliography:: Bibliography or reference list. * theorem:: Theorems, lemmas, etc. * titlepage:: For hand crafted title pages. * verbatim:: Simulating typed input. * verse:: For poetry and other things.  File: latex, Node: array, Next: center, Prev: Environments, Up: Environments array ----- \begin{array}{col1col2...coln} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ . . . \end{array} Math arrays are produced with the array environment. It has a single mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within them. Each column, `coln', is specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should be formatted. * `c' -- for centred * `l' -- for flush left * `r' -- for flush right Column entries must be separated by an `&'. Column entries may include other LaTeX commands. Each row of the array must be terminated with the string `\\'. Note that the `array' environment can only be used in math mode, so normally it is used inside an `equation' environment.  File: latex, Node: center, Next: description, Prev: array, Up: Environments center ------ \begin{center} Text on line 1 \\ Text on line 2 \\ . . . \end{center} The `center' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are centred within the left and right margins on the current page. Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'. * Menu: * \centering:: The declaration form of the `center' environment.  File: latex, Node: \centering, Up: center \centering .......... This declaration corresponds to the `center' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote' or in a `parbox'. The text of a figure or table can be centred on the page by putting a `\centering' command at the beginning of the figure or table environment. Unlike the `center' environment, the `\centering' command does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.  File: latex, Node: description, Next: enumerate, Prev: center, Up: Environments description ----------- \begin{description} \item [label] First item \item [label] Second item . . . \end{description} The `description' environment is used to make labelled lists. The `label' is bold face and flushed right.  File: latex, Node: enumerate, Next: eqnarray, Prev: description, Up: Environments enumerate --------- \begin{enumerate} \item First item \item Second item . . . \end{enumerate} The `enumerate' environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments. Each item of an enumerated list begins with an `\item' command. There must be at least one `\item' command within the environment. The `enumerate' environment uses the `enumi' through `enumiv' counters (*note Counters::.). The type of numbering can be changed by redefining `\theenumi' etc.  File: latex, Node: eqnarray, Next: equation, Prev: enumerate, Up: Environments eqnarray -------- \begin{eqnarray} math formula 1 \\ math formula 2 \\ . . . \end{eqnarray} The `eqnarray' environment is used to display a sequence of equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column `array' environment, with consecutive rows separated by `\\' and consecutive items within a row separated by an `&'. An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a `\nonumber' command. The command `\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width.  File: latex, Node: equation, Next: figure, Prev: eqnarray, Up: Environments equation -------- \begin{equation} math formula \end{equation} The `equation' environment centres your equation on the page and places the equation number in the right margin.  File: latex, Node: figure, Next: flushleft, Prev: equation, Up: Environments figure ------ \begin{figure}[placement] body of the figure \caption{figure title} \end{figure} Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages. The optional argument `[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try to place your figure. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float: 1. `h' (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure environment appears. 2. `t' (Top) - at the top of a text page. 3. `b' (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. 4. `p' (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats. The standard report and article classes use the default placement `tbp'. The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc. you wish. The `\caption' command allows you to title your figure.  File: latex, Node: flushleft, Next: flushright, Prev: figure, Up: Environments flushleft --------- \begin{flushleft} Text on line 1 \\ Text on line 2 \\ . . . \end{flushleft} The `flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin. Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'. * Menu: * \raggedright:: The declaration form of the `flushleft' environment.  File: latex, Node: \raggedright, Up: flushleft \raggedright ............ This declaration corresponds to the `flushleft' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote' or in a `parbox'. Unlike the `flushleft' environment, the `\raggedright' command does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.  File: latex, Node: flushright, Next: itemize, Prev: flushleft, Up: Environments flushright ---------- \begin{flushright} Text on line 1 \\ Text on line 2 \\ . . . \end{flushright} The `flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin. Each line must be terminated with the string `\\'. * Menu: * \raggedleft:: The declaration form of the `flushright' environment.  File: latex, Node: \raggedleft, Up: flushright \raggedleft ........... This declaration corresponds to the `flushright' environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote' or in a `parbox'. Unlike the `flushright' environment, the `\raggedleft' command does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or `\end' command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph unit.  File: latex, Node: itemize, Next: letter, Prev: flushright, Up: Environments itemize ------- \begin{itemize} \item First item \item Second item . . . \end{itemize} The `itemize' environment produces a "bulleted" list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments. Each item of an `itemized' list begins with an `\item' command. There must be at least one `\item' command within the environment. The `itemize' environment uses the `itemi' through `itemiv' counters (*note Counters::.). The type of numbering can be changed by redefining `\theitemi' etc.  File: latex, Node: letter, Next: list, Prev: itemize, Up: Environments letter ------ This environment is used for creating letters. *Note Letters::.  File: latex, Node: list, Next: minipage, Prev: letter, Up: Environments list ---- The `list' environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in macros. \begin{list}{label}{spacing} \item First item \item Second item . . . \end{list} The `{label}' argument specifies how items should be labelled. This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label. This argument can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands. The `{spacing}' argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be null, i.e., `{}'. This will select all default spacing which should suffice for most cases.  File: latex, Node: minipage, Next: picture, Prev: list, Up: Environments minipage -------- \begin{minipage}[position]{width} text \end{minipage} The `minipage' environment is similar to a `\parbox' command. It takes the same optional `position' argument and mandatory `width' argument. You may use other paragraph-making environments inside a minipage. Footnotes in a `minipage' environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A `\footnote' or `\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the `mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary `footnote' counter *Note Counters::. NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.  File: latex, Node: picture, Next: quotation, Prev: minipage, Up: Environments picture ------- \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) . . picture commands . . \end{picture} The `picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign -- a number like `5', `2.3' or `-3.1416'. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length `\unitlength', so if `\unitlength' has been set to `1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres. You can change the value of `\unitlength' anywhere you want, using the `\setlength' command, but strange things will happen if you try changing it inside the picture environment. A position is a pair of coordinates, such as `(2.4,-5)', specifying the point with x-coordinate `2.4' and y-coordinate `-5'. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. The `picture' environment has one mandatory argument, which is a `position'. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this argument's x- and y-coordinates. The `picture' environment also has an optional `position' argument, following the `size' argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if `\unitlength' has been set to `1mm', the command \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 millimetres, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to leave for it. Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the `\put' command. The command \put (11.3,-.3){...} puts the object specified by `...' in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below. The `\put' command creates an "LR box". You can put anything in the text argument of the `\put' command that you'd put into the argument of an `\mbox' and related commands. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. Picture commands: * Menu: * \circle:: Draw a circle. * \dashbox:: Draw a dashed box. * \frame:: Draw a frame around an object. * \framebox (picture):: Draw a box with a frame around it. * \line:: Draw a straight line. * \linethickness:: Set the line thickness. * \makebox (picture):: Draw a box of the specified size. * \multiput:: Draw multiple instances of an object. * \oval:: Draw an ellipse. * \put:: Place an object at a specified place. * \shortstack:: Make a pile of objects. * \vector:: Draw a line with an arrow.  File: latex, Node: \circle, Next: \dashbox, Up: picture \circle ....... `\circle[*]{diameter}' The `\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. If the `*'-form of the command is used, LaTeX draws a solid circle. Note that only circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.  File: latex, Node: \dashbox, Next: \frame, Prev: \circle, Up: picture \dashbox ........ Draws a box with a dashed line. `\dashbox{dash_length}(width,height){...}' The `\dashbox' has an extra argument which specifies the width of each dash. A dashed box looks best when the `width' and `height' are multiples of the `dash_length'.  File: latex, Node: \frame, Next: \framebox (picture), Prev: \dashbox, Up: picture \frame ...... `\frame{...}' The `\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around the object specified in the argument. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object.  File: latex, Node: \framebox (picture), Next: \line, Prev: \frame, Up: picture \framebox ......... `\framebox(width,height)[position]{...}' The `\framebox' command is exactly the same as the `\makebox' command, except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. The `framebox' command produces a rule of thickness `\fboxrule', and leaves a space `\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box.  File: latex, Node: \line, Next: \linethickness, Prev: \framebox (picture), Up: picture \line ..... `\line(x slope,y slope){length}' The `\line' command draws a line of the specified `length' and `slope'. Note that LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x and y have integer values from -6 through 6.  File: latex, Node: \linethickness, Next: \makebox (picture), Prev: \line, Up: picture \linethickness .............. `\linethickness{dimension}' Declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be `dimension', which must be a positive length. It does not affect the thickness of slanted lines and circles, or the quarter circles drawn by `\oval' to form the corners of an oval.  File: latex, Node: \makebox (picture), Next: \multiput, Prev: \linethickness, Up: picture \makebox ........ `\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}' The `\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the normal `\makebox' command except that you must specify a `width' and `height' in multiples of `\unitlength'. The optional argument, `[position]', specifies the quadrant that your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: * `t' - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle * `b' - Moves the item to the bottom * `l' - Moves the item to the left * `r' - Moves the item to the right *Note \makebox::.  File: latex, Node: \multiput, Next: \oval, Prev: \makebox (picture), Up: picture \multiput ......... `\multiput(x coord,y coord)(delta x,delta y){number of copies}{object}' The `\multiput' command can be used when you are putting the same object in a regular pattern across a picture.  File: latex, Node: \oval, Next: \put, Prev: \multiput, Up: picture \oval ..... `\oval(width,height)[portion]' The `\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument, `[portion]', allows you to select part of the oval. * `t' - Selects the top portion * `b' - Selects the bottom portion * `r' - Selects the right portion * `l' - Selects the left portion Note that the "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20 pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with rounded corners.  File: latex, Node: \put, Next: \shortstack, Prev: \oval, Up: picture \put .... `\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }' The `\put' command places the item specified by the mandatory argument at the given coordinates.  File: latex, Node: \shortstack, Next: \vector, Prev: \put, Up: picture \shortstack ........... `\shortstack[position]{... \\ ... \\ ...}' The `\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are: * `r' - Moves the objects to the right of the stack * `l' - Moves the objects to the left of the stack * `c' - Moves the objects to the centre of the stack (default)  File: latex, Node: \vector, Prev: \shortstack, Up: picture \vector ....... `\vector(x slope,y slope){length}' The `\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The `x' and `y' values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive.  File: latex, Node: quotation, Next: quote, Prev: picture, Up: Environments quotation --------- \begin{quotation} text \end{quotation} The margins of the `quotation' environment are indented on the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins and there is paragraph indentation. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.  File: latex, Node: quote, Next: tabbing, Prev: quotation, Up: Environments quote ----- \begin{quote} text \end{quote} The margins of the `quote' environment are indented on the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.  File: latex, Node: tabbing, Next: table, Prev: quote, Up: Environments tabbing ------- \begin{tabbing} text \= more text \= still more text \= last text \\ second row \> \> more \\ . . . \end{tabbing} The `tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much the way you do with an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance. This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the `tabular' environment. The following commands can be used inside a `tabbing' enviroment: `\=' Sets a tab stop at the current position. `\>' Advances to the next tab stop. `\<' This command allows you to put something to the left of the local margin without changing the margin. Can only be used at the start of the line. `\+' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right. `\-' Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left. `\'' Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e. everything from the most recent `\>', `\<', `\'', `\\', or `\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. `\`' Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The `\`' command moves all the text that follows it, up to the `\\' or `\end{tabbing}' command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment. There must be no `\>' or `\'' command between the `\`' and the command that ends the line. `\kill' Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like `\\' except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any `\=', `\+' or `\-' commands in that line remain in effect. `\pushtabs' Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a `tabbing' environment. `\pushtabs' Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last `\pushtabs'. `\a' In a `tabbing' environment, the commands `\=', `\'' and `\`' do not produce accents as normal. Instead, the commands `\a=', `\a'' and `\a`' are used. This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: \begin{tabbing} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end{tabbing}  File: latex, Node: table, Next: tabular, Prev: tabbing, Up: Environments table ----- \begin{table}[placement] body of the table \caption{table title} \end{table} Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Tables will not be split between two pages. The optional argument `[placement]' determines where LaTeX will try to place your table. There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float: * `h' : Here - at the position in the text where the table environment appears. * `t' : Top - at the top of a text page. * `b' : Bottom - at the bottom of a text page. * `p' : Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats. The standard `report' and `article' classes use the default placement `[tbp]'. The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., you wish. The `\caption' command allows you to title your table.  File: latex, Node: tabular, Next: thebibliography, Prev: table, Up: Environments tabular ------- \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ . . . \end{tabular} or \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ . . . \end{tabular*} These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items, aligned vertically in columns. The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: `width' Specifies the width of the `tabular*' environment. There must be rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified width. `pos' Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of the environment. * `t' - align on top row * `b' - align on bottom row `cols' Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and intercolumn material. * `l' - A column of left-aligned items. * `r' - A column of right-aligned items. * `c' - A column of centred items. * `|' - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. * `@{text}' - This inserts `text' in every row. An @-expression suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be included in text. An `\extracolsep{wd}' command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width `wd' to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another `\extracolsep' command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An `\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in the `cols' argument. * `p{wd}' - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width `wd', as if it were the argument of a `\parbox[t]{wd}' command. However, a `\\' may not appear in the item, except in the following situations: 1. inside an environment like `minipage', `array', or `tabular'. 2. inside an explicit `\parbox'. 3. in the scope of a `\centering', `\raggedright', or `\raggedleft' declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an environment when used in a `p'-column element. * `*{num}{cols}' - Equivalent to `num' copies of `cols', where `num' is any positive integer and `cols' is any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another `*-expression'. These commands can be used inside a `tabular' environment: * Menu: * \cline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning some columns. * \hline:: Draw a horizontal line spanning all columns. * \multicolumn:: Make an item spanning several columns. * \vline:: Draw a vertical line.  File: latex, Node: \cline, Next: \hline, Up: tabular \cline ...... `\cline{i-j}' The `\cline' command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified, beginning in column `i' and ending in column `j', which are identified in the mandatory argument.  File: latex, Node: \hline, Next: \multicolumn, Prev: \cline, Up: tabular \hline ...... The `\hline' command will draw a horizontal line the width of the table. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of the table.  File: latex, Node: \multicolumn, Next: \vline, Prev: \hline, Up: tabular \multicolumn ............ `\multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}' The `\multicolumn' is used to make an entry that spans several columns. The first mandatory argument, `cols', specifies the number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, `pos', specifies the formatting of the entry; `c' for centred, `l' for flushleft, `r' for flushright. The third mandatory argument, `text', specifies what text is to make up the entry.  File: latex, Node: \vline, Prev: \multicolumn, Up: tabular \vline ...... The `\vline' command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and depth of its row. An `\hfill' command can be used to move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an @-expression.  File: latex, Node: thebibliography, Next: theorem, Prev: tabular, Up: Environments thebibliography --------------- \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label} \bibitem[label]{cite_key} . . . \end{thebibliography} The `thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or reference list. In the `article' class, this reference list is labelled "References"; in the `report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography". * `widest-label': Text that, when printed, is approximately as wide as the widest item label produces by the `\bibitem' commands. * Menu: * \bibitem:: Specify a bibliography item. * \cite:: Refer to a bibliography item. * \nocite:: Include an item in the bibliography. * Using BibTeX:: Automatic generation of bibliographies.  File: latex, Node: \bibitem, Next: \cite, Up: thebibliography \bibitem ........ `\bibitem[label]{cite_key}' The `\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by `label'. If the `label' argument is missing, a number is generated as the `label', using the `enumi' counter. The `cite_key' is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. This command writes an entry on the `.aux' file containing `cite_key' and the item's `label'. When this `.aux' file is read by the `\begin{document}' command, the item's `label' is associated with `cite_key', causing the reference to `cite_key' by a `\cite' command to produce the associated `label'.  File: latex, Node: \cite, Next: \nocite, Prev: \bibitem, Up: thebibliography \cite ..... `\cite[text]{key_list}' The `key_list' argument is a list of citation keys. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with the keys in `key_list' by entries on the `.aux' file read by the `\begin{document}' command. The optional `text' argument will appear after the citation, i.e. `\cite[p. 2]{knuth}' might produce `[Knuth, p. 2]'.  File: latex, Node: \nocite, Next: Using BibTeX, Prev: \cite, Up: thebibliography \nocite ....... `\nocite{key_list}' The `\nocite' command produces no text, but writes `key_list', which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the `.aux' file.